Saturday, August 31, 2019

Luther’s Change of Mind Essay

This paper argues that Martin Luther (1483-1546) changed his mind about the Jews, shifting from a friendly to a hostile position, because of mental anxieties, his constant health problems, old age, and disappointment that Jews were not converting to Christianity. Luther was dissatisfied that Jews did not accept Jesus Christ, although his criticisms of the Jews were theological; not racial. The argument that a direct line can be drawn from Luther to Hitler and that Luther shares blame for the Holocaust, is rejected. This does not imply that Luther’s hostility towards Jews did not influence Hitler’s ideas and policies but rejects the attribution of Hitler’s â€Å"final solution† to Luther. In his first extended text on Jews, Luther wrote â€Å"If we really want to help† Jews, â€Å"we must be guided in our dealings with them not by papal law but by the law of Christian love†. Sources and Outline of Argument The primary sources for Luther’s views of Jews and of Judaism are his writing. He wrote â€Å"That Jesus was Born a Jew† in 1523, which represents his early, friendly attitude. He wrote his negative, hostile tract, â€Å"On the Jews and their Lies† in 1543. His last sermon, preached at Eisleben a few days before his death was â€Å"against the Jews†, and can be taken as representing his final position. These writings need to be placed in the context of Luther’s biography and of historical circumstance. In order to contextualize these primary sources, secondary sources are consulted. These include Heiko Augustinus Oberman’s Luther: Man between God and the Devil (1989) and Derek A Wilson’s Out of the Storm: The Life and Legacy of Martin Luther (2008). The essay begins with the content and context of Luther’s writing on Jews against the background of older Christian attitudes, against which Luther initially reacted. Luther’s initial position, his final position and the reason for his change of mind are identified. The essay then discusses the charge that Luther should have been tried alongside perpetrators of the Holocaust at the Nuremberg Trials, where defendant and former Nazi propagandist, Julius Streicher (1885-1946 ) said: Anti-Semitic publications have existed in Germany for centuries. A book I had, written by Dr. Martin Luther, was, for instance, confiscated. Dr. Martin Luther would very probably sit in my place in the defendants’ dock today, if this book had been taken into consideration by the Prosecution. In this book The Jews and Their Lies, Dr. Martin Luther writes that the Jews are a serpent’s brood and one should burn down their synagogues and destroy them†¦ The conclusion argues that although Luther’s position did change, the claim that he shares responsibility for the Holocaust fails. Hitler and his supporters manipulated Luther for their own purposes, while a fundamental difference separates him from them. Luther, it is true, supported the deportation of Jews and the destruction of Jewish property but not their extermination. Analysis of Luther’s Initial Position Luther led the Protestant Reformation when he posted his â€Å"95 Thesis† to the door of the Cathedral at Wittenberg, where he was an Augustinian priest and University teacher. Luther saw his Reformation as a breath of fresh air blowing through the Church, sweeping aside false doctrines and corrupt practices that obscured the real Christian gospel. Justification before God was by faith in Jesus Christ and was freely available, not a commodity that the Pope could sell. His translation of the Bible and the hymns he wrote for congregational singing were all intended to make Christianity directly accessible to ordinary believers, who did not have to depend on the mediation of priests any more. People could enjoy direct fellowship with God. Luther set out to challenge many commonly accepted notions about the Christian faith. Aware of a long history of Christian animosity toward Jews and Judaism, Luther reminded Christians that the own Bible had been written by Jews and that Jesus was himself Jewish, a fact often overlooked or even deliberately ignored in much Christian thought. In advocating kinder treatment of Jews, his hope was that this would result in their conversion. This distinguished Luther’s attitude toward Jews from what has been described as the traditional â€Å"teaching of contempt†, a term coined by Jules Isaac (1877-1963), a friend of Pope John XXIII. The teaching of contempt blamed Jews for murdering â€Å"God† (the charge of deicide), taught that having rejected and killed Jesus Jews’ were no longer God’s people but served the Devil, they were denied rights of citizenship, banned from most professions, banned from living wherever they wished to while travel restrictions and a dress code were also imposed on them. All of this consisted of papal decrees as well as national and city level legal codes. God had condemned the Jews to wonder the earth as a lesson to others of what happens when a people turn their back on God. Enforced conversions, deportation, pogroms were all justified by the teaching of contempt. Jews were accused of concealing the truth within their texts, so the Talmud was sometimes destroyed. Anti-Semitism, however, started before the birth of Christianity. Paul Johnson describes Greek animosity towards Jews and their religion, citing several sources. These include Appollinius Molon, Posidonius, Democritus and Plutarch all of whom wrote anti-Jewish polemic. The Jewish race had been cursed from the beginning of time. Jews sacrificed asses’ heads in their temple as well as secret human sacrifices, which explained why no outsider could enter the inner-most chambers. Jews were regarded as haters or despisers of the human race because they kept themselves apart, did not inter-marry and refused to recognize the Gods and goddesses of the ancient world. Although Rome extended certain exemptions to the Jews, the Romans increasingly regarded Jews as problematic as revolt followed revolt until eventually all exemptions were overturned and Jews were banned from residing in Palestine following the revolt of 132. Christian anti-Semitism picked up on many of the same polemic, accusing Jews of stealing Christian boys at Passover and sacrificing them, the â€Å"blood-libel† which surfaced first in England in 1144. Efforts were made to convert Jews and those who did convert were usually assimilated into the wider society, although some were accused of remaining secretly Jewish. In 1519, Luther opposed a â€Å"purge† by a former Jew, Johann Pfefferkorn (1469-1523) who wanted to burn Jewish books. Then, in his 1523 pamphlet, he advocated kindness and love toward Jews. What happened to harden Luther’s heart and to change his mind so that he later supported book-burning and other anti-Jewish measures? Luther’s Change of Mind and End Position Luther’s life has been described as a constant struggle between God and Satan. Jesus and God and the possibility of forgiveness for all people who turn in repentance to God were real to him but so was Satan and Satan’s opposition to God and to the Christian religion. â€Å"Chaos† he believed â€Å"resulted when Satan triumphed. † It was fear that social catastrophe would result from the Peasants’ Revolt of 1525. The Peasants had expected Luther to support them, since his Reformation had given ordinary Christians much more control over their own faith. However, Luther sided with the princes and denounced the rebellion as â€Å"an offence against God† and the work of Satan: â€Å"the fire of revolt was spreading, and if not checked would have widespread, disastrous results. † As Luther grew older and inc increasingly ill, he became more and more aware that the battle between good and evil, God and Satan was far from over. He began to see the Devil everywhere, says Poliakov. Luther wanted to reform the Church, not create a schism and grew increasingly annoyed that the pope refused to call a council to consider his proposals, saying in 1535 that he would attend a council even knowing that he might be â€Å"burned†. When a council was indefinitely postponed in 1539, Luther became somewhat embittered. Luther’s language could be intemparate, even crude. He was a man of fierce passion as well as of profound faith. The older he grew, the more willing he became to see Satan’s hand behind anything that hindered the Reformation’s progress. In 1536, as the possibility of a reforming council receded, the Elector of Saxony was preparing to expel all Jews from his realm. This had the sanction of the Church and was no â€Å"bolt out of the blue†. Thinking that an appeal to Luther for clemency might prevent this, the Jewish leader, Josel von Rosheim (1480-1554) approached him, supposing him to be a â€Å"friend of the Jews. † Not only did Luther refuse to intervene but reversed his earlier position, publishing On the Jews and their Lies. If he had power, he wrote, he would â€Å"set fire to† synagogues and â€Å"schools† then â€Å"bury with dirt whatever† did not burn. Jews were to be expelled unless they converted. Their â€Å"ill-gotten† gains should be confiscated. All this was to be done so that â€Å"God may see that we are Christian. † In his final sermon, he described Jews as â€Å"public enemies† yet he still expressed his love for them. His tactics towards them not his estimate of their worth in God’s sight had changed. He never supported murdering Jews. What he wrote drew heavily, too, on existing anti-Jewish polemic. He was deeply disappointed that Jews were not converting. Why Luther cannot be blamed for Hitler’s â€Å"final solution† Luther’s tracts were reprinted during the Third Reich. Hitler described Luther as a German Hero. In the wake of how the Third Reich used Luther to justify their crimes, the â€Å"whole world capitalized upon Luther, the fierce Jew-baiter. † However, no action Luther proposed was not already Church and state policy and what Luther advocated â€Å"was very far from being a final solution. † Oberman points out that German Jews were among the most assimilated community when Hitler rose to power, suggesting that this makes the idea that an â€Å"unbroken line† exists between Luther and Hitler implausible. Hitler recruited Luther’s legacy but manipulated this for his own purposes. It was no â€Å"coincidence† that Kristallacht took place on Luther’s birthday, November 11, 1938 but â€Å"this was sheer opportunism, backed by a perversion of scholarship. † Luther ended up supporting deportation but only of Jews who refused to convert: Hitler set out to exterminate a whole race, including Jews who were Christian. Luther did not hate the Jewish race. He wanted them to become Christians. There is, says Wilson, no â€Å"well beaten path that can be traveled from Wittenberg to Auschwitz. † He suggests that Luther would have opposed Hitler’s dictatorship. It is, however, true that no other pamphlet than â€Å"On the Jews and their Lies† has caused â€Å"more harm to Luther’s reputation†, says Wilson. Nonetheless, the view that Luther was an ally of the Nazis â€Å"in carrying out their Final Solution† does not withstand critical scrutiny of what Luther actually wrote. References Bennett, Clinton. In Search of Jesus (London & NY: Continuum, 2001). Hitler, Adolf. Mein Kampf. Translated by Ralph Manheim. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, Sentry Edition, 1971) Goring, H. Trial of the major war criminals before the International Military Tribunal, Nuremberg, 14 November 1945-1 October 1946 ( Nuremberg, Germany: International Military Tribue, 1947).

Friday, August 30, 2019

Obesity In the United States

In the United States today, obesity has become an enormous problem. In the last 3decades, the number of people overweight has increased dramatically. A study done by theCenters of Disease Control showed that since 1980, one third of our adult population has becomeoverweight. America is the richest but also the fattest nation in the world, and our obese backsides are the butt of jokes in every other country (Klein 28). The 1980s were a time whenAmericans suddenly started going crazy over dieting, jumping onto the treadmills, and buying prepackaged non-fat foods.However, while all of that was going on, the number of obeseAmericans began to increase. According to a report in the Journal of the American MedicalAssociation, 58 million people in our country weigh over 20 percent of their body’s ideal weight. The article â€Å"Fat Times† states, â€Å"If this were about tuberculosis, it would be called an epidemic†(Elmer-Dewit 58). The eating habits of society have stea dily become more harmful and havestarted to produce gluttonous children, over-indulgent adults, and a food industry set too muchon satisfying our appetites.Obesity can begin at a very young age. Many children in our society are overweight,setting themselves up for serious health problems later in life. Type 2 diabetes, high bloodcholesterol, high blood pressure, and heart problems are just some of the risks. Children who areoverweight also tend to feel less secure, less happy, and be stressed more than normal weight children do. They get teased, criticized, and judged. In many cases, the problem is not the child’sfault.Being overweight may run in that child’s family, or their parents do not encourage them to be active and get enough exercise. Many children spend too much time indoors wasting away infront of the TV, playing video games, or spending time on the computer, and consuming high fatsnacks, soft drinks and candy at the same time (Weight Management). The CDC per formed astudy in 1994 that was described in the book Fat Land; it showed that children who watched over four hours of television a day had higher body mass index (body fatness) numbers than thosewho watched less than one hour a day.In 1994, The Centers for Disease Control studied the TVviewing time, exercise patterns, and weight gain of 4063 children aged eight to fifteen. Theresults found that the less a child exercised and the more they watched TV, the more likely theywere to be obese or overweight. When they surveyed the parents, they discovered that theconcern about crime was a reason that the parents didn’t want their children outside being active. That is why they were not concerned about the harmful effect of sitting in front of the TV allday; they were just glad that their children were safe.Surveys, studies, and reports that came outin the 1990s began to show shocking results of how â€Å"socially disfranchised† children were becoming from being obese (Critser 73-74). Schools aren’t helping the children either;How can the school nutritionist compete against BigFoot pizzas and Super-Size fries? The $50,000 the U. S. government allots each state annually to teach kids to eat right islost next to the billions spent designing food and packaging that will ring the kids'Pavlovian bells†¦ the percentage of teens who are overweight, which held steady at about15% through the 1970s, rose to 21% by 1991. The kids eat nothing but junk food’ saysLiam Hennessey, a special-ed teacher from San Francisco who watches students on school trips open the lunches their parents pack for them, gobble up the Oreos and Pop-Tarts and toss out the sandwiches† (Elmer-Dewitt). A Harvard Health Report, â€Å"Weight Less, Live Longer,† discusses how many people donot realize that their appetite and diet can be closely related to many psychological factors. Any person who has ever binged on chips or cookies when they feel upset can underst and this.Several studies have shown that people tend to eat more when they feel anxious, depressed, or have symptoms of other emotional disorders. Certain foods have been known to have a calmingeffect, although unfortunately it is usually the fattening foods that do. When a depressed personeats to feel better, they gain weight, and being overweight can in turn cause depression and theemotional problems that signal overeating. A vicious cycle begins. Being overweight can causemore emotional problems than just overeating, however.Sadly, obese people are very oftensocially shunned, judged, criticized, and made fun of. They have more trouble finding jobs,friends, and mates. Being discriminated against just adds to the emotional strain that overweight people have to deal with. Their depression from being obese can cause feelings of hopelessness,making it seem impossible for them to try to lose weight and change the way they look (WhyPeople Become Overweight). The book Food as a Drug desc ribes some studies that have beendone to try and see if obesity could be considered the same as a drug dependency disorder.Foodcan sometimes be a powerful psychoactive substance, and â€Å"one way to view eating disorders isto appreciate that food is a complex mixture and that the body responds to food as it does tochemicals, such as those found in alcohol and other psychoactive drugs. Eating disorders aretherefore chemical disorders† (Food as a Drug). The food we eat in America is another factor contributing to the nation’s obese population. The desire for junk food has rapidly replaced the desire for fruits and vegetables and other healthy edibles. Who can blame people for buying it? It’s easy, quick, cheap, and fun.What people can be blamed for is the amount they eat. Junk food defined is food packed withchemicals, sugar, and sodium, such as french fries, hamburgers, and sweets. Junk food is not justlimited to snacks; fast food was put on the list when the ca lories, fat, sodium, and chemicalcontent surpassed the nutritional value. â€Å"Although many health authorities insist that there is nosuch thing as junk food, consumers find it a useful term for distinguishing nourishing food from products whose chief appeal is fun, convenience, and addictive taste; ‘bet you can't eat just one’†(Junk Food). Americans are spending about $4. billion a year on potato chips, and 23. 5 billiona year on candy and gum. 46 Percent of adult Americans eat out on a typical day, and one thirdof them choose fast food. That is because the fast food industry has slowly become one of thesymbols of American culture and is spreading to other cultures as well: McDonalds has 26,000locations in 119 countries, Pizza Hut has more than 10,000 in 86 countries, and Subway has14,500 in 75 countries. Commercials, signs, and huge advertisements are pushing junk food at usevery day; people can not even go to the grocery store without candy bars being lined up right bythe checkout.The junk food industry realizes how appealing it can be. When a person is in arush, they can easily eat a large meal without having to make a lot of decisions, work, dress up,or get out of their car. The speed and convenience fit Americans’ pressured lifestyles. It does notfit, however, to our health and wellness. A fast food meal, such as a Burger King DoubleWhopper with cheese, contains 965 calories, more than double the amount of fat, and as much as750 grams too much sodium for the day. The food is providing all the wrong ingredients; it hastoo much protein and fat and no fiber or vitamins. It is o wonder our nation is so overweightwhen the food they make habit of eating can be so dangerous. It is very unfortunate that Americans get to the point where fat caters to their hurried lifestyles. Junk food may not bealtogether toxic, but when it is eaten on a habitual basis it can be deadly (â€Å"Junk Food†). Excessive weight on the body can pose some extremely serious health risks. Just some of those risks are type 2 diabetes, infertility, hypertension, heart attacks, colon cancer, prostatecancer, hyperlipidemia, and breast cancer. The general mechanism for gaining weight is obviousand simple.When people consume more calories than the body can burn, the body stores thosecalories as fat tissue. However, some genetic factors can play a part, such as how the bodyregulates the metabolic rate and appetite. Some people use their genetics as an excuse, butactually those that have the predisposition to gaining weight do not have to be fat (Carson-Dewitt). â€Å"People with only a moderate genetic predisposition to be overweight have a goodchance of losing weight on their own by eating fewer calories and getting more vigorous exercisemore often.These people are more likely to be able to maintain this lower weight† (Why PeopleBecome Overweight). It is mainly the amount of fat that people make a habit of eating and their lifest yle that plays the biggest role in their overall health. Some symptoms of obesity are excessfatty tissue and excessive weight gain, causing arthritis, lower back pain and other orthopedic problems, hernias, heartburn, adult-onset asthma, high cholesterol levels, high blood pressure,gum disease, gallstones, skin disorders, shortness of breath that can be incapacitating, sleepapnea, and emotional and social problems.Studies have shown that individuals who are â€Å"apple-shaped† tend to have higher risks of risk heart disease, stroke, cancer, and diabetes than peoplewhose weight sits in their hips and thighs and are â€Å"pear-shaped† (Carson-Dewitt). The book Eating Disorders and Obesity points out also that where fat is deposited in the body makes adifference in disease risk. The intra-abdominal fat is very dangerous. In this area, fat cells produce harmful chemicals that go to the liver. Lipacidemia (the presence of fatty acid in the blood) obstructs oxygen and glucos e from being transported to the muscles, thus increasing the body’s resistance to insulin.The book also shows statistics that adult onset diabetes is mostsensitive to weight gain. â€Å"A gradient in risk of more than 50-fold is seen from the leanest to theheaviest men and women, and even modest gains in weight from age 18 to midlife are associatedwith an increase in risk several times greater than that of a person who maintained a stableweight† (Eating Disorders and Obesity). Increased BMI (body mass index) of 23 to 25 hadincreased abnormalities in blood pressure, glucose tolerance, and serum lipids.People who areoverweight may try to present the benefit of less hip fractures and broken bones than people whoare lean (because of more padding), but heart disease and diabetes are far more important anddangerous health risks. There are no benefits to being overweight (Eating Disorders andObesity). Preventing obesity at an early age is very beneficial to people’s he alth and self-esteem. Parents can prevent their children from becoming obese later in life more than they know. Theyneed to be role models for their children, and set examples of a good lifestyle.Regulating howmuch the child eats is important, especially what they’re eating. Sugar should be cut down, aswell as high-calorie snacks. Limiting time in front of the TV and computer could increase physical activity as well (Weight Management). The article â€Å"Obesity† explains that obese adultswhose parents never taught them good eating and health habits have to take care of themselvesand change their lifestyles. Treating obesity is not just about quick weight loss, it is about settingup a lifelong pattern of good choices. Yo-Yo† dieting is very dangerous and can increase a person’s risk for fatal diseases. Behavior-focused treatment should concentrate on learning andunderstanding the fat content and overall nutritional value of most foods. Overweight individua lsmay need to keep a food diary to record their calories and food choices, and change habits in grocery shopping, times of meals, and actual rate of eating. Some psychological factors, such ashow a person views food, could play a part. Some people overeat when they are under extremestress, for example, and see food as a comfort.Others may eat to reward themselves for success. Many views of food are contributing to why people gain weight so quickly, and if people canidentify the psychological reasons behind why they eat so much, they could prevent a lot of problems. The article continues by describing how physical activity is another life habit that isvital to make. The amount of time someone spends exercising and being active can contributemuch to his or her overall health. As many as 85% of dieters who do not exercise on a regular basis regain their lost weight within two ears. In five years, the figure rises to 90%. Exerciseincreases the metabolic rate by creating muscle, which bu rns more calories than fat. Whenregular exercise is combined with regular, healthful meals, calories continue to burn at anaccelerated rate for several hours. When individuals work hard and build endurance, it helpsthem not feel discouraged. New activities and varied routines can help them not lose interest instaying active. Individuals trying to make these life changes would be wise to be encouraged andsupervised by a medical professional.Weight loss programs, such as â€Å"Weight Watchers† cansometimes be effective, as they emphasize realistic goals, sensible eating, gradual progress andexercise. However, some can be dangerous because they promise extreme weight loss and may put people on dangerous diet plans or pills. Most doctors would not approve of those, but wouldrecommend a low calorie diet (about 1200 to 1500 calories a day), or a liquid protein diet for upto three months. Along with the supervision of dieting and exercise, the doctor would probablyrecommend a psychi atrist to help the patient deal with their views on food.Sometimes appetite-suppressant pills are administered, which increase levels of serotonin or catecholamine,chemicals that control feelings of fullness. Food plays a huge part though; â€Å"getting the correct ratios of protein, carbohydrates, and good-quality fats can help in weight loss via enhancement of the metabolism. Support groups that are informed about healthy, nutritious, and balanced dietscan offer an individual the support he or she needs to maintain this type of eating regimen†(Obesity).Obesity experts have made the point that monitoring fat consumption is moreimportant than just counting calories. Just 30 percent of calories eaten per day should come fromfat, and only one third of those calories should come from saturated fat (Obesity). Many Americans are trying to fight the battle against obesity. Many aren’t winning. Howcan they when packaging on junk food is distracting children from the salad bar , or when adultssee commercials for huge meals every 10 minutes on television? Food is being pushed atAmericans constantly; there seems no way to get around the message of â€Å"you have to eat. There seems to be no way to achieve fitness goals because there are too many obstacles. Whether a person’s obstacles are their genetics and metabolism, their depression, or their habits andlifestyle, being overweight is one of the hardest things in life to deal with. The things that obese people have to deal with are very unfortunate. The health problems are harmful enough to well- being, but the cycle of depression and emotional problems that comes along with obesity in somany cases can be worse.Obese people have to walk through life constantly being reminded of their damaging habits and things can seem so hopeless. It is so important to start healthy habitsearly in life. The benefits of good behavior and good life patterns can make life more fulfilling,worth living for and longer l asting. Americans used to embrace healthy eating habits but thecountry got so busy that good ideals were thrown away. The problem of obesity is not just aboutfood; it is about an entire lifestyle Obesity In the United States In the United States today, obesity has become an enormous problem. In the last 3decades, the number of people overweight has increased dramatically. A study done by theCenters of Disease Control showed that since 1980, one third of our adult population has becomeoverweight. America is the richest but also the fattest nation in the world, and our obese backsides are the butt of jokes in every other country (Klein 28). The 1980s were a time whenAmericans suddenly started going crazy over dieting, jumping onto the treadmills, and buying prepackaged non-fat foods.However, while all of that was going on, the number of obeseAmericans began to increase. According to a report in the Journal of the American MedicalAssociation, 58 million people in our country weigh over 20 percent of their body’s ideal weight. The article â€Å"Fat Times† states, â€Å"If this were about tuberculosis, it would be called an epidemic†(Elmer-Dewit 58). The eating habits of society have stea dily become more harmful and havestarted to produce gluttonous children, over-indulgent adults, and a food industry set too muchon satisfying our appetites.Obesity can begin at a very young age. Many children in our society are overweight,setting themselves up for serious health problems later in life. Type 2 diabetes, high bloodcholesterol, high blood pressure, and heart problems are just some of the risks. Children who areoverweight also tend to feel less secure, less happy, and be stressed more than normal weight children do. They get teased, criticized, and judged. In many cases, the problem is not the child’sfault.Being overweight may run in that child’s family, or their parents do not encourage them to be active and get enough exercise. Many children spend too much time indoors wasting away infront of the TV, playing video games, or spending time on the computer, and consuming high fatsnacks, soft drinks and candy at the same time (Weight Management). The CDC per formed astudy in 1994 that was described in the book Fat Land; it showed that children who watched over four hours of television a day had higher body mass index (body fatness) numbers than thosewho watched less than one hour a day.In 1994, The Centers for Disease Control studied the TVviewing time, exercise patterns, and weight gain of 4063 children aged eight to fifteen. Theresults found that the less a child exercised and the more they watched TV, the more likely theywere to be obese or overweight. When they surveyed the parents, they discovered that theconcern about crime was a reason that the parents didn’t want their children outside being active. That is why they were not concerned about the harmful effect of sitting in front of the TV allday; they were just glad that their children were safe.Surveys, studies, and reports that came outin the 1990s began to show shocking results of how â€Å"socially disfranchised† children were becoming from being obese (Critser 73-74). Schools aren’t helping the children either;How can the school nutritionist compete against BigFoot pizzas and Super-Size fries? The $50,000 the U. S. government allots each state annually to teach kids to eat right islost next to the billions spent designing food and packaging that will ring the kids'Pavlovian bells†¦ the percentage of teens who are overweight, which held steady at about15% through the 1970s, rose to 21% by 1991. The kids eat nothing but junk food’ saysLiam Hennessey, a special-ed teacher from San Francisco who watches students on school trips open the lunches their parents pack for them, gobble up the Oreos and Pop-Tarts and toss out the sandwiches† (Elmer-Dewitt). A Harvard Health Report, â€Å"Weight Less, Live Longer,† discusses how many people donot realize that their appetite and diet can be closely related to many psychological factors. Any person who has ever binged on chips or cookies when they feel upset can underst and this.Several studies have shown that people tend to eat more when they feel anxious, depressed, or have symptoms of other emotional disorders. Certain foods have been known to have a calmingeffect, although unfortunately it is usually the fattening foods that do. When a depressed personeats to feel better, they gain weight, and being overweight can in turn cause depression and theemotional problems that signal overeating. A vicious cycle begins. Being overweight can causemore emotional problems than just overeating, however.Sadly, obese people are very oftensocially shunned, judged, criticized, and made fun of. They have more trouble finding jobs,friends, and mates. Being discriminated against just adds to the emotional strain that overweight people have to deal with. Their depression from being obese can cause feelings of hopelessness,making it seem impossible for them to try to lose weight and change the way they look (WhyPeople Become Overweight). The book Food as a Drug desc ribes some studies that have beendone to try and see if obesity could be considered the same as a drug dependency disorder.Foodcan sometimes be a powerful psychoactive substance, and â€Å"one way to view eating disorders isto appreciate that food is a complex mixture and that the body responds to food as it does tochemicals, such as those found in alcohol and other psychoactive drugs. Eating disorders aretherefore chemical disorders† (Food as a Drug). The food we eat in America is another factor contributing to the nation’s obese population. The desire for junk food has rapidly replaced the desire for fruits and vegetables and other healthy edibles. Who can blame people for buying it? It’s easy, quick, cheap, and fun.What people can be blamed for is the amount they eat. Junk food defined is food packed withchemicals, sugar, and sodium, such as french fries, hamburgers, and sweets. Junk food is not justlimited to snacks; fast food was put on the list when the ca lories, fat, sodium, and chemicalcontent surpassed the nutritional value. â€Å"Although many health authorities insist that there is nosuch thing as junk food, consumers find it a useful term for distinguishing nourishing food from products whose chief appeal is fun, convenience, and addictive taste; ‘bet you can't eat just one’†(Junk Food). Americans are spending about $4. billion a year on potato chips, and 23. 5 billiona year on candy and gum. 46 Percent of adult Americans eat out on a typical day, and one thirdof them choose fast food. That is because the fast food industry has slowly become one of thesymbols of American culture and is spreading to other cultures as well: McDonalds has 26,000locations in 119 countries, Pizza Hut has more than 10,000 in 86 countries, and Subway has14,500 in 75 countries. Commercials, signs, and huge advertisements are pushing junk food at usevery day; people can not even go to the grocery store without candy bars being lined up right bythe checkout.The junk food industry realizes how appealing it can be. When a person is in arush, they can easily eat a large meal without having to make a lot of decisions, work, dress up,or get out of their car. The speed and convenience fit Americans’ pressured lifestyles. It does notfit, however, to our health and wellness. A fast food meal, such as a Burger King DoubleWhopper with cheese, contains 965 calories, more than double the amount of fat, and as much as750 grams too much sodium for the day. The food is providing all the wrong ingredients; it hastoo much protein and fat and no fiber or vitamins. It is o wonder our nation is so overweightwhen the food they make habit of eating can be so dangerous. It is very unfortunate that Americans get to the point where fat caters to their hurried lifestyles. Junk food may not bealtogether toxic, but when it is eaten on a habitual basis it can be deadly (â€Å"Junk Food†). Excessive weight on the body can pose some extremely serious health risks. Just some of those risks are type 2 diabetes, infertility, hypertension, heart attacks, colon cancer, prostatecancer, hyperlipidemia, and breast cancer. The general mechanism for gaining weight is obviousand simple.When people consume more calories than the body can burn, the body stores thosecalories as fat tissue. However, some genetic factors can play a part, such as how the bodyregulates the metabolic rate and appetite. Some people use their genetics as an excuse, butactually those that have the predisposition to gaining weight do not have to be fat (Carson-Dewitt). â€Å"People with only a moderate genetic predisposition to be overweight have a goodchance of losing weight on their own by eating fewer calories and getting more vigorous exercisemore often.These people are more likely to be able to maintain this lower weight† (Why PeopleBecome Overweight). It is mainly the amount of fat that people make a habit of eating and their lifest yle that plays the biggest role in their overall health. Some symptoms of obesity are excessfatty tissue and excessive weight gain, causing arthritis, lower back pain and other orthopedic problems, hernias, heartburn, adult-onset asthma, high cholesterol levels, high blood pressure,gum disease, gallstones, skin disorders, shortness of breath that can be incapacitating, sleepapnea, and emotional and social problems.Studies have shown that individuals who are â€Å"apple-shaped† tend to have higher risks of risk heart disease, stroke, cancer, and diabetes than peoplewhose weight sits in their hips and thighs and are â€Å"pear-shaped† (Carson-Dewitt). The book Eating Disorders and Obesity points out also that where fat is deposited in the body makes adifference in disease risk. The intra-abdominal fat is very dangerous. In this area, fat cells produce harmful chemicals that go to the liver. Lipacidemia (the presence of fatty acid in the blood) obstructs oxygen and glucos e from being transported to the muscles, thus increasing the body’s resistance to insulin.The book also shows statistics that adult onset diabetes is mostsensitive to weight gain. â€Å"A gradient in risk of more than 50-fold is seen from the leanest to theheaviest men and women, and even modest gains in weight from age 18 to midlife are associatedwith an increase in risk several times greater than that of a person who maintained a stableweight† (Eating Disorders and Obesity). Increased BMI (body mass index) of 23 to 25 hadincreased abnormalities in blood pressure, glucose tolerance, and serum lipids.People who areoverweight may try to present the benefit of less hip fractures and broken bones than people whoare lean (because of more padding), but heart disease and diabetes are far more important anddangerous health risks. There are no benefits to being overweight (Eating Disorders andObesity). Preventing obesity at an early age is very beneficial to people’s he alth and self-esteem. Parents can prevent their children from becoming obese later in life more than they know. Theyneed to be role models for their children, and set examples of a good lifestyle.Regulating howmuch the child eats is important, especially what they’re eating. Sugar should be cut down, aswell as high-calorie snacks. Limiting time in front of the TV and computer could increase physical activity as well (Weight Management). The article â€Å"Obesity† explains that obese adultswhose parents never taught them good eating and health habits have to take care of themselvesand change their lifestyles. Treating obesity is not just about quick weight loss, it is about settingup a lifelong pattern of good choices. Yo-Yo† dieting is very dangerous and can increase a person’s risk for fatal diseases. Behavior-focused treatment should concentrate on learning andunderstanding the fat content and overall nutritional value of most foods. Overweight individua lsmay need to keep a food diary to record their calories and food choices, and change habits in grocery shopping, times of meals, and actual rate of eating. Some psychological factors, such ashow a person views food, could play a part. Some people overeat when they are under extremestress, for example, and see food as a comfort.Others may eat to reward themselves for success. Many views of food are contributing to why people gain weight so quickly, and if people canidentify the psychological reasons behind why they eat so much, they could prevent a lot of problems. The article continues by describing how physical activity is another life habit that isvital to make. The amount of time someone spends exercising and being active can contributemuch to his or her overall health. As many as 85% of dieters who do not exercise on a regular basis regain their lost weight within two ears. In five years, the figure rises to 90%. Exerciseincreases the metabolic rate by creating muscle, which bu rns more calories than fat. Whenregular exercise is combined with regular, healthful meals, calories continue to burn at anaccelerated rate for several hours. When individuals work hard and build endurance, it helpsthem not feel discouraged. New activities and varied routines can help them not lose interest instaying active. Individuals trying to make these life changes would be wise to be encouraged andsupervised by a medical professional.Weight loss programs, such as â€Å"Weight Watchers† cansometimes be effective, as they emphasize realistic goals, sensible eating, gradual progress andexercise. However, some can be dangerous because they promise extreme weight loss and may put people on dangerous diet plans or pills. Most doctors would not approve of those, but wouldrecommend a low calorie diet (about 1200 to 1500 calories a day), or a liquid protein diet for upto three months. Along with the supervision of dieting and exercise, the doctor would probablyrecommend a psychi atrist to help the patient deal with their views on food.Sometimes appetite-suppressant pills are administered, which increase levels of serotonin or catecholamine,chemicals that control feelings of fullness. Food plays a huge part though; â€Å"getting the correct ratios of protein, carbohydrates, and good-quality fats can help in weight loss via enhancement of the metabolism. Support groups that are informed about healthy, nutritious, and balanced dietscan offer an individual the support he or she needs to maintain this type of eating regimen†(Obesity).Obesity experts have made the point that monitoring fat consumption is moreimportant than just counting calories. Just 30 percent of calories eaten per day should come fromfat, and only one third of those calories should come from saturated fat (Obesity). Many Americans are trying to fight the battle against obesity. Many aren’t winning. Howcan they when packaging on junk food is distracting children from the salad bar , or when adultssee commercials for huge meals every 10 minutes on television? Food is being pushed atAmericans constantly; there seems no way to get around the message of â€Å"you have to eat. There seems to be no way to achieve fitness goals because there are too many obstacles. Whether a person’s obstacles are their genetics and metabolism, their depression, or their habits andlifestyle, being overweight is one of the hardest things in life to deal with. The things that obese people have to deal with are very unfortunate. The health problems are harmful enough to well- being, but the cycle of depression and emotional problems that comes along with obesity in somany cases can be worse.Obese people have to walk through life constantly being reminded of their damaging habits and things can seem so hopeless. It is so important to start healthy habitsearly in life. The benefits of good behavior and good life patterns can make life more fulfilling,worth living for and longer l asting. Americans used to embrace healthy eating habits but thecountry got so busy that good ideals were thrown away. The problem of obesity is not just aboutfood; it is about an entire lifestyle

Thursday, August 29, 2019

Bald Soprano Research Paper

Now these people with no concrete definition to their being are to live in this gigantic world to the best of their ability. Their lives aren’t normal ones. Ionesco brings out the absurdity in his characters by excluding any solid foundation or motivation for living on earth. One very important form of guidance on life’s journey is Time. If there was no concept of time then all chaos would ensue and no one would know when anything is to be done. It is also a key factor to know how to live and work alongside time: to work with it, not against it. Will they be able to live in some sense of normality or will they be off on their own supernova to be absurd for evermore. Through the use of symbolism, irony and dialogue, Eugene Ionesco’s, The Bald Soprano conveys the idea that life is a never-ending cycle to express the absurdity of the human condition. The cycle of life is symbolized through the clock to reveal that the characters are stuck in an endless loop of time. The clock seems to take on a life all its own. It seems to decide when it wants to ring and how many times. The clock rings in a way that is quite shocking to the audience. This is because in the real world a clock does not normally ring 17 times. Nor is it normal for it to shoot out random times that don’t even go in order. In only one moment â€Å" The clock strikes seven times. Silence. The clock strikes three times. Silence† (The Bald Soprano 2). There seems to be no set regimen for time to follow. Time in the play is unorganized and almost absent in its common purpose. In no possible way could these characters even have the smallest possible chance of some normal routine when they have no constant to guide them through. Yes, Time is present but it is not the way in which we calculate it. There is no repeating pattern in this aspect and yet it still proceeds on which causes an endless loop of lunacy from which they cannot escape. The peculiar thing about it is the characters are not even finding it odd, as this is their notion of normalcy. In the play â€Å"the abnormal is treated as if it were thoroughly normal† (knowlson). And its funny because they don’t even realize that it never rings the same way or goes in a repeating pattern. The clock is random. It intrudes illogically. There is no logic in the Smith’s lives. The concept of reality is being distorted and no ounce of sense remains. The characters are flat, broad and general, which clearly emphasizes the absurdity of the human condition: trying to find a meaning and purpose to life. Even the primary characters last name, which is Smith, is so plain and typical. The plays cyclical structure accentuates repetition of the illogical happenings in the incompatible world in which the Smiths, Martins, the Maid and the Fire Chief live in. The play includes a â€Å"circular trajectory that ends where it began† (Kraus), thus causing the whole disordered cycle to start over and where the characters are involuntarily perplexed for all eternity. The characters live in a world of irony. They are lost in a continuum of memory loss without even realizing that they are losing their minds. Considering they don’t realize, they have no recollection of what has been going on around them and therefore not knowing what their purpose is in being where they are. This constant back and forth concept is for one, ironic because they have no memory of no longer having memory, but it is also mind-boggling. Mrs. Smith says, â€Å"We were expecting them. And we were hungry. Since they didn’t put in an appearance, we were going to start dinner without them. We’ve had nothing to eat all day† (The Bald Soprano 4). Mrs. Smith said she and Mr. Smith were going to eat but they didn’t. The characters can’t even remember what decisions they made and can’t remember to follow them. There is no stable element to guide them along a steady path. In the real world our memories our like our personal book of stories that hold the events that have happened in our lives. It defines us as a person of who we are in the past as well as who we are now. We as humans also interpret things we experience differently and remember things in different ways. Though we rely on our memory and mind quite heavily, who says it is a reliable resource to begin with? Ionesco is pointing towards the idea that our minds can’t possibly do everything for us as well as remember anything and everything we want it to. Unreliability of the memory is a concept that Ionesco wants us to take a look at, and that is a natural human failure that is part of our absurdity. As seen in The Bald Soprano the mind isn’t always a dependable tool that is conducive to everyday living. Our experiences make up our life’s journey and define our being. Ionesco’s characters do not know who they are and their purpose for living. At the end of the play the two couples switch places. The Smiths become the Martins and the Martins the Smiths. This results â€Å"in a da capo conclusion [with] the words that had been spoken by the Smiths at the beginning of the play [are now being spoken by the Martins]† (Knowlson). It’s ironic how they repeat the story but as different people but with the same name, because what is the purpose of having a name and being somebody if anyone can be anyone? Ionesco brings out inconsistency, which is a major factor in the play and possibly a factor in our lives. Without consistency the lives in which we lead would lack substance and meaning. Ionesco suggests the idea of a normal daily schedule in which a human being can follow and keep order is a necessity. The human condition may seem absurd at times because what really is the point in doing the same thing everyday for as long as we live? The answer is, the consistency in the constant never ending cycle is life, which is why we are living. There may be nonsense in the play but somehow it leads to sense. The ironic statements due to memory loss show the absurdity in which humans possess. Mr. Smith is one who can be categorized as so. Without his memory he puts out ironic phrases without even putting thought to it and this leads to a lack of sentence structure. The play is made up of dialogue that sometimes seems to lack a sense of logic. The language in the play decreases in substance as the play progresses. The â€Å"language flows independently from meaning† (Feal). The words are not communicating what they seem to say but rather the underlying meaning, which is found in the way the language is used or how really how it is informally used. Language and meaning march to the beat of a different drum. The words are separate entities that work independently yet together to convey Ionesco’s view on language, which is that it is made out to be more than what it is really worth. Language is used as a communicator and the order, or lack of it, in which words are placed, conveys a message of pure insanity. The characters â€Å"actions contradict words, and [their] words contradict [their] actions. Even the title is misleading, since there is no bald soprano in the play† (Esteban). Ionesco writes where there is meaning in no meaning, so he probably intended on writing with meaning all along. The characters talk just to talk and they really have nothing of importance to say. As the play drags on while the structure becomes less and less until dialogue has lost all value and â€Å"made into mere exchange† (Knowlson). The words on the page are out of content and have become particles of matter that are floating in the air. The more they talk, the less they are actually communicating and this is causing the precious tool of language to no longer articulate. Like when Mr. Smith states â€Å"The pope elopes! The pope’s got no horoscope. The horoscope’s bespoke† (The Bald Soprano 17). The play starts out with sentences that make no sense at all then it breaks down to just words without meaning until finally all that is left is a bunch of frenzied sounds. The characters have gotten quite angry that they lost all ability to communicate that their chatter swells up into mushy sound. They live in a never-ending cycle of insignificant discourse. This is Ionesco pointing out the absurdity of how humans converse. The Bald Soprano is a piece under the genre of the Absurd. It is very easy to see why. In this genre a common aspect is that the characters are rapt in an endlessly repeating cycle. This cycle usually leads nowhere as it is a cycle with no beginning and no end. Ionesco uses this cycle to emulate life. Life is filled with a bunch of meaningless things that fill our everyday lives. Banana. When something is of meaning we know because we have experienced the everyday typical life of a human. Broadway. Dreams. Goals. That’s what we are. Well that’s what we should be. Life is pretty much repeating. Repeating. Repeating. Repeating. We have a set way of doing things and we follow it. We repeat these actions to fill up our lives with substance so that there is at least something there to start with and so that we have the ability to move forward and continue. Think of it as muscles. Muscles give our body substance to stand up and it is what allows us to move as well as other necessary functions. In our world we use a clock to stay in touch with time. Time. Timing. Bad timing. Time is a fundamental concept that guides humans through life, gives structure, as well as ages and heals. We also say funny things sometimes and we do use a language to communicate. It is how we use all these things that matters. Bald Soprano Research Paper Now these people with no concrete definition to their being are to live in this gigantic world to the best of their ability. Their lives aren’t normal ones. Ionesco brings out the absurdity in his characters by excluding any solid foundation or motivation for living on earth. One very important form of guidance on life’s journey is Time. If there was no concept of time then all chaos would ensue and no one would know when anything is to be done. It is also a key factor to know how to live and work alongside time: to work with it, not against it. Will they be able to live in some sense of normality or will they be off on their own supernova to be absurd for evermore. Through the use of symbolism, irony and dialogue, Eugene Ionesco’s, The Bald Soprano conveys the idea that life is a never-ending cycle to express the absurdity of the human condition. The cycle of life is symbolized through the clock to reveal that the characters are stuck in an endless loop of time. The clock seems to take on a life all its own. It seems to decide when it wants to ring and how many times. The clock rings in a way that is quite shocking to the audience. This is because in the real world a clock does not normally ring 17 times. Nor is it normal for it to shoot out random times that don’t even go in order. In only one moment â€Å" The clock strikes seven times. Silence. The clock strikes three times. Silence† (The Bald Soprano 2). There seems to be no set regimen for time to follow. Time in the play is unorganized and almost absent in its common purpose. In no possible way could these characters even have the smallest possible chance of some normal routine when they have no constant to guide them through. Yes, Time is present but it is not the way in which we calculate it. There is no repeating pattern in this aspect and yet it still proceeds on which causes an endless loop of lunacy from which they cannot escape. The peculiar thing about it is the characters are not even finding it odd, as this is their notion of normalcy. In the play â€Å"the abnormal is treated as if it were thoroughly normal† (knowlson). And its funny because they don’t even realize that it never rings the same way or goes in a repeating pattern. The clock is random. It intrudes illogically. There is no logic in the Smith’s lives. The concept of reality is being distorted and no ounce of sense remains. The characters are flat, broad and general, which clearly emphasizes the absurdity of the human condition: trying to find a meaning and purpose to life. Even the primary characters last name, which is Smith, is so plain and typical. The plays cyclical structure accentuates repetition of the illogical happenings in the incompatible world in which the Smiths, Martins, the Maid and the Fire Chief live in. The play includes a â€Å"circular trajectory that ends where it began† (Kraus), thus causing the whole disordered cycle to start over and where the characters are involuntarily perplexed for all eternity. The characters live in a world of irony. They are lost in a continuum of memory loss without even realizing that they are losing their minds. Considering they don’t realize, they have no recollection of what has been going on around them and therefore not knowing what their purpose is in being where they are. This constant back and forth concept is for one, ironic because they have no memory of no longer having memory, but it is also mind-boggling. Mrs. Smith says, â€Å"We were expecting them. And we were hungry. Since they didn’t put in an appearance, we were going to start dinner without them. We’ve had nothing to eat all day† (The Bald Soprano 4). Mrs. Smith said she and Mr. Smith were going to eat but they didn’t. The characters can’t even remember what decisions they made and can’t remember to follow them. There is no stable element to guide them along a steady path. In the real world our memories our like our personal book of stories that hold the events that have happened in our lives. It defines us as a person of who we are in the past as well as who we are now. We as humans also interpret things we experience differently and remember things in different ways. Though we rely on our memory and mind quite heavily, who says it is a reliable resource to begin with? Ionesco is pointing towards the idea that our minds can’t possibly do everything for us as well as remember anything and everything we want it to. Unreliability of the memory is a concept that Ionesco wants us to take a look at, and that is a natural human failure that is part of our absurdity. As seen in The Bald Soprano the mind isn’t always a dependable tool that is conducive to everyday living. Our experiences make up our life’s journey and define our being. Ionesco’s characters do not know who they are and their purpose for living. At the end of the play the two couples switch places. The Smiths become the Martins and the Martins the Smiths. This results â€Å"in a da capo conclusion [with] the words that had been spoken by the Smiths at the beginning of the play [are now being spoken by the Martins]† (Knowlson). It’s ironic how they repeat the story but as different people but with the same name, because what is the purpose of having a name and being somebody if anyone can be anyone? Ionesco brings out inconsistency, which is a major factor in the play and possibly a factor in our lives. Without consistency the lives in which we lead would lack substance and meaning. Ionesco suggests the idea of a normal daily schedule in which a human being can follow and keep order is a necessity. The human condition may seem absurd at times because what really is the point in doing the same thing everyday for as long as we live? The answer is, the consistency in the constant never ending cycle is life, which is why we are living. There may be nonsense in the play but somehow it leads to sense. The ironic statements due to memory loss show the absurdity in which humans possess. Mr. Smith is one who can be categorized as so. Without his memory he puts out ironic phrases without even putting thought to it and this leads to a lack of sentence structure. The play is made up of dialogue that sometimes seems to lack a sense of logic. The language in the play decreases in substance as the play progresses. The â€Å"language flows independently from meaning† (Feal). The words are not communicating what they seem to say but rather the underlying meaning, which is found in the way the language is used or how really how it is informally used. Language and meaning march to the beat of a different drum. The words are separate entities that work independently yet together to convey Ionesco’s view on language, which is that it is made out to be more than what it is really worth. Language is used as a communicator and the order, or lack of it, in which words are placed, conveys a message of pure insanity. The characters â€Å"actions contradict words, and [their] words contradict [their] actions. Even the title is misleading, since there is no bald soprano in the play† (Esteban). Ionesco writes where there is meaning in no meaning, so he probably intended on writing with meaning all along. The characters talk just to talk and they really have nothing of importance to say. As the play drags on while the structure becomes less and less until dialogue has lost all value and â€Å"made into mere exchange† (Knowlson). The words on the page are out of content and have become particles of matter that are floating in the air. The more they talk, the less they are actually communicating and this is causing the precious tool of language to no longer articulate. Like when Mr. Smith states â€Å"The pope elopes! The pope’s got no horoscope. The horoscope’s bespoke† (The Bald Soprano 17). The play starts out with sentences that make no sense at all then it breaks down to just words without meaning until finally all that is left is a bunch of frenzied sounds. The characters have gotten quite angry that they lost all ability to communicate that their chatter swells up into mushy sound. They live in a never-ending cycle of insignificant discourse. This is Ionesco pointing out the absurdity of how humans converse. The Bald Soprano is a piece under the genre of the Absurd. It is very easy to see why. In this genre a common aspect is that the characters are rapt in an endlessly repeating cycle. This cycle usually leads nowhere as it is a cycle with no beginning and no end. Ionesco uses this cycle to emulate life. Life is filled with a bunch of meaningless things that fill our everyday lives. Banana. When something is of meaning we know because we have experienced the everyday typical life of a human. Broadway. Dreams. Goals. That’s what we are. Well that’s what we should be. Life is pretty much repeating. Repeating. Repeating. Repeating. We have a set way of doing things and we follow it. We repeat these actions to fill up our lives with substance so that there is at least something there to start with and so that we have the ability to move forward and continue. Think of it as muscles. Muscles give our body substance to stand up and it is what allows us to move as well as other necessary functions. In our world we use a clock to stay in touch with time. Time. Timing. Bad timing. Time is a fundamental concept that guides humans through life, gives structure, as well as ages and heals. We also say funny things sometimes and we do use a language to communicate. It is how we use all these things that matters.

Wednesday, August 28, 2019

Effectiveness of the Department of Homeland Security Research Paper

Effectiveness of the Department of Homeland Security - Research Paper Example Reflecting on what happened on that fateful day; one is left wondering how it happened and where the security agents were at the time. However, what is clear is that the intelligence agencies failed in their mandate to protect the country from such catastrophes. A reflection of the incidence show the Pentagon being raced down by planes hijacked by terrorists. In fact, many people were taken aback by the incident including the security agents. Therefore, to prevent such attacks in the future and to ensure that America becomes a secure country to live in and do business, George Walker Bush, undertook a proactive move that led to the establishment of the Department of Homeland Security. The move to establish the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) was informed by the need to protect the U.S. against terrorism, according to Ball (2005). DHS had 22 different federal agencies charge with different roles aimed at ensuring that the country is safeguarded from terrorist threats. The fact th at DHS had 22 different federal departments made it the third largest Federal department in the country. An overview of the Department of Homeland Security's responsibilities in prevention and emergency response The responsibilities of the Department of Homeland Security as far as prevention and emergency response are concerned are four folds. The first major responsibility of DHS is safeguarding the United States by preventing terrorism and enhancing national security (Charvat, 2012). According to Charvat (2012), safeguarding the U.S. and its citizens from terrorism was the cornerstone for its formation, following the 9/11 incident. The 9/11 incident exposed the country’s vulnerability to terrorism of whatever kind. Therefore, in response to the incident, the then president, George Walker Bush found it necessary to form an independent department responsible for safeguarding the country from terrorist threats. It is reported that DHS works in collaboration with other federal Departments and agencies to ensure that the country remain safe and secure to live in and do business. In fulfilling its mandate of safeguarding the country against terrorism, DHS also focuses on the prevention of unauthorized importation, acquisition, or use of nuclear, biological, and chemical materials and capabilities within the country’s borders. In addition, DHS focuses on reducing vulnerability of key leadership, crucial infrastructure, and events to terrorist attacks and other catastrophes (Ball, 2005). Indeed many agree that the safety of the United States have increased tremendously since the formation of the Department of Homeland Security. So far, the country has not suffered a major incidence of terrorism (Charvat, 2012). In addition, with the help of the DHS, the President Obama administration have been able to kill Osama, the mastermind of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. However, this is not to say that the U.S. is absolutely safe from terrorism. This is because th e country recently witnessed an incident of terrorism during the Boston marathon, which left some people dead and scores injured. The incidence show that the DHS still needs to do more to safeguard the country and citizens from terrorism.

Tuesday, August 27, 2019

Nutrition, health, and wellness Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Nutrition, health, and wellness - Essay Example Considering the general health of people, several organizations have come with a food guide pyramid, which serves as a guide for healthy eating. While the focus is on food, daily exercise and weight control form the basis of the pyramid as these, according to research conducted in several countries, have a strong influence on keeping the mind and body fit. The pyramid has a broad base which includes vegetables and whole grains and these should be consumed in sufficient quantities as they provide the much needed proteins to the body. This is followed by whole breads, fruits, olive oil and leafy vegetables which need to be consumed in lesser amounts compared to the first. Plant-based products are generally suggested by nutritionists as they provide the necessary vitamins and minerals to the body and they have low carbohydrates and are usually devoid of fats. The next portion in the pyramid includes fish, poultry and other sea foods and nuts which could be consumed in moderate amounts a s they contain considerable amount of healthy fats. Milk and other dairy products can be consumed in limited quantities mainly for their protein content and finally the upper tip of the pyramid contains red meat, potatoes and aerated drinks which are unhealthy nutrition wise and are can be avoided. Thus the pyramid is constructed keeping in mind the nutritional benefits provided by foods and the amount in which they can be consumed (The Nutrition). Both governmental and independent organizations formulate dietary guidelines and these are published for public viewing. The health department and the agricultural department of the US government have released their dietary guidelines. A similar healthy eating pyramid has been designed by the faculty of the nutrition department at Harvard School. The Food and Drug Administration has released its set of dietary guidelines for Americans. In addition there is also a dietary guidelines advisory committee (DGAC)

Monday, August 26, 2019

Life Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Literature review

Life Cycle Assessment of Greenhouse Gas Emissions - Literature review Example This increase in demand will lead to construction of new power plants; this means that more greenhouse gas will be released into environment; and the environment will continue to be affected by the greenhouse emissions. Generally, there exists a number of ways in which electric energy (electricity) is produced; and each method of production has benefits and disadvantages in relation to operation cost, and impact on the environment, among other factors. For example, the major sources of electric energy include: nuclear energy, coal, natural gas, hydroelectric, oil, biomass, solar and wind among others. Therefore, there is a great need that the future power plants are built such that greenhouse emissions are kept as minimum as possible, and environmental impact is minimized. In this regard, this research paper has carried out a life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from four natural gas and biomass power plants in United Kingdom. The plants investigated in this research inc lude: Elean, Knapton, Sleaford and Sutton Bridge power plants. These power plants source electricity from natural gas, oil, and/or biomass among others. Table of Contents 1.INTRODUCTION 5 1.1 Aims 6 1.2 Problem statement 6 2.LITERATURE REVIEW 7 2.1 Understanding Lifecycle assessment 7 2.2 Lifecycle assessment of the various energy sources 8 2.2.1 Fossil Fuel 8 2.2.2 Lignite 8 2.2.3 Coal 8 2.2.4 Oil 9 2.2.5 Biomass 9 3.METHODOLOGY 9 4.ELEAN POWER PLANT 10 4.1 Power plant’s Brief preview 10 4.2 Characteristics of straw used on the power (the major source of fuel) 10 4.3 Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from Elean Power Plant 12 4.3.1 The source of Straw used in Elean Power Plant 12 4.3.2 Transportation of straw to the power plant 12 4.3.3 Calculation of greenhouse emissions as a result of combusion of diesel 18 4.4 Emission with carbon capture 33 4.5 MASS BALANCE FOR ELEAN POWER PLANT 34 4.6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF ELEAN POWER PLANT 37 5.SLEAFORD RENEWABLE ENERGY PLANT 39 5.1 Preview of sleaford power plant 39 5.2 Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from Sleaford Renewable Energy 41 5.3 Calculation of greenhouse emissions as a result of combusion of diesel 44 5.4 Emission with carbon capture 56 5.5 Mass Balance 56 5.6 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS FOR SLEAFORD RENEWABLE ENERGY 59 6SUTTON BRIDGE POWER STATION 60 6.1 Brief Preview of the power plant 60 6.2 Life cycle assessment of greenhouse gas emissions from Sutton Bridge Power Plant 61 6.3 Emission with carbon capture 67 Elean power plant is considered one of the major Biomass fired power stations in the world; in fact, according to Farming and Countryside Education (2013), it is the largest power plant in the world that is powered by straw. In addition, it is normally considered the first straw fired power plant in the United Kingdom. It is located in Cambridgeshire at Sutton area near Ely, and it was constructed in the period between 1998 and 2000 (that is, construction of the power pla nt begun in 1998, and was completed in 2000) (Farming and Countryside Education, 2013). It is estimated that the power plant consumes approximately 200000 tonnes of straw every year, and that it generates electric power that is enough to serve about 800000 homes (Galbraith, et al., 2006). Or according to   Farming and Countryside Education (2013), it produces electric power that is enough to power two towns whose sizes can be compared to that of Cambridge.   Elean power plant has two barns which are 18 meters high, and are used to house straw (fuel for the production of electricty); these barns are located on the either side the plants 25 meter high boiler   (Centre for Climate and Energy Solutions, 2012). In order that the plant fits perfectly into unfavourable surrounding landscape, it was constructed approximately 8 meters into the ground surface   (Brem, 2005).

Childhood Vaccinations Are they really needed Essay

Childhood Vaccinations Are they really needed - Essay Example Flanders (2000), states the two examples of child's deaths which are connected with vaccination and non-vaccination. According to her article, one of the girls died of Hepatitis B, which kills about 5,000 thousand people in the US each year and the other died after being vaccinated against polio. The main question, asked by Flanders (2000), is whether it should be obligatory to go through childhood vaccination, or should parents be able to refuse from immunization 'to avoid rare, but sometimes, serious, reactions' 'All sides of this debate have the same concerns at heart. They all want children to be healthy and protected. It's just the ways to achieve this goal that are contentious. The fact that vaccines prevent a huge number of illnesses, but have some side effects, makes for a difficult policy question, but not one that hasn't been solved in other areas.' (Allen 2002) At the same time, according to the Allen's article, 'the compensation program provides financial assistance to families to care for children injured by vaccines and helps those families who have lost a child to a severe side effect'. But it should be remembered, that the mentioned system is designed as 'non-fault', which means that it is no need in defining whether vaccine has been defective or the doctor didn't have enough medical skills to prevent side effects. In case no other specific medical reasons for child's death are found, it is supposed that the vaccine has caused it. But it should also be remembered, that ' if the injury or cause of death is not one of a list of known vaccine side effects, the families must provide proof that the ailment was caused by the vaccine'. (O'Meara, 2003) Using the MEDLINE database, it was possible to find the following data: 'There's been a huge decline, and disease rates in adults are now higher than in children," said Dr. Beth P. Bell, chief of epidemiology in the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)'s Division of Viral Hepatitis and senior author of a report that appears in today's Journal of the American Medical Association. There were 25,000 to 35,000 cases of hepatitis A per year in this country before the era of vaccination. But in 2003, about 7,600 cases were reported, and the total for 2004 will probably be around 6,000.' (http:/nurseworldmag.com/articles-on-nursing/healthcare.htm) Research methodology The present research is based on comparing the existing literary sources and data in terms of positive and negative effects of childhood vaccination, for finding out the objective and profound conclusion. Theoretical framework The theoretical framework of the present research should be based on the analysis of the available data in relation to positive and negative effects of the vaccinations. At the same time, the main hypothesis of the work is that health care for both groups of children (those who have received their vaccinations according to the schedule and those who didn't) will not be different. The independent variable here is presented by the presence or absence of vaccination among children, while any differences in health medical care for them

Sunday, August 25, 2019

The origin and early expansion of Islam Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The origin and early expansion of Islam - Essay Example This beginning of the new religion as well as a civilization continued even after the death of the Prophet Muhammad; the religion spread quite readily across the world, but still Islam showed tolerance and gave space to other religions. One clear example in this regard is of the Jewish community settled in the Medina after an Islamic society was established there. The Jewish people were given the right to keep following their religious customs, and were granted cultural independence which was so lax that it also allowed them to observe Jewish religious laws; the Muslims in return gained the Jew's political loyalty towards the Muslim rulers. Later on in history as well, Jews enjoyed liberty and privileges during the Muslim rule in countries like Egypt, Turkey as well Iran. Another example of a co-existing as well as a conflicting religion (to Islam) is Christianity which enjoyed the same privileges (Esposito, 2002). The tribes in Arab region worshipped various pagan gods, and there were three major monotheistic religions in that area, Hebrew, Christianity, and a monotheism religion developed by Persians knows as Zoroastrianism. The majority of people in middle-east most specifically Arab were driven by tribal-based traditionalism, their value systems as well as various social, economics, religious and political aspects of their life were all controlled by the division of their society into tribes. Each tribe followed some separate pagan god, and had separate culture and belief-set that fueled their need for being deemed superior. Therefore each tribe competed in becoming the most prestigious and most powerful and for this purpose they invented their own superior gods and sought their favors. Aside from worshipping pagan gods the Arabs also honoured other heavenly objects as well as various plants and animals. In those times the people were worshipping idols more often therefore it is thought that even the Christians and the Arabs could start worshipping idols. Even Christianity was distorted in this area, and many additions were made in this religion by the priests and manipulated the doctrine to fit to their own requirements, that took away the religion's actual shape. Due to such deviant religious practices many un-just and wrongful practices had also taken root in this society, the rich were exploiting the poor, and the weak in the community were being driven to the ground by the mighty. The treatment of women and children was also merciless and harsh. Wars amongst the tribes were quite common and caused much destruction and were the major reason of poverty and terrible economic conditions of the region. Few elders in the tribes were given unparalleled importance and their ever order were followed, this lack of equal distribution of power lead to wrong decisions and exploitations of a major segment of society. Conclusion The year 622 A.D. marked a monumental milestone in the history of the religion of Islam. This marked the beginning of an era that changed the history as well as the geography of the whole world; the ripples of this event will be felt till the end of time. Soon the time

Saturday, August 24, 2019

Trustes Tropiques Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Trustes Tropiques - Assignment Example The writer organized a barter exchange in order to count them. The natives had neither written language nor drawing skills. The writer gave them sheets of paper and pencil which ate first they did nothing with them. They later used them to draw wavy and horizontal line trying to emulate the writer (Strauss 1279). Their chief seemed to have grasped the purpose of writing because he requested for a writing-pad and continued. Each time the writer could ask a question, the chief would draw wavy lines on paper and hand them over before giving a verbal commentary. The writer together with the chief was to exchange some goods. The chief took advantage to surprise his natives and convince them that he was an intermediary agent for the exchange of the goods and that he was in coalition with the white man and shared his secrets (Strauss 1280).Writing had been adopted in Nambikwara. It was a way of increasing authority and prestige rather than acquiring knowledge as it a social symbol and not f or intellectual purpose (Strauss 1281). Chief used it acquire prestige at the expense of his natives.In conclusion, writing is a strange invention because its emergence brought about positive effects to human existence. Writing brings forth ability to conserve knowledge, organize the present and predict the future. Writing has led to the expansion in the field of science. Although writing is beneficial to mankind, it is said that, during Neolithic age, man made a great move without the aid of writing.

Friday, August 23, 2019

Compare and contrast the Right to Remain Silent in the US and the UK Essay

Compare and contrast the Right to Remain Silent in the US and the UK - Essay Example On March 13th 1963 Ernesto Miranda was arrested in Arizona and taken to the Phoenix Police Station where he was then identified by the complaint-filing witness. Without being notified of his rights, Miranda was led into the interrogation room and questioned by police officers. In two hour’s time the officers had succeeded in obtaining a written and signed confession from Miranda. The signed statement claimed he signed it â€Å"with full knowledge of my legal rights, understanding any statement I make may be used against me.† When the case went to trial the prosecution used Miranda’s statement of confession against him and despite objections from the defense, the judge allowed for the confession to be admitted as evidence. Miranda appealed and the Supreme Court of Arizona ruled his rights were not violated because Miranda never requested council to be present during questioning. Miranda’s case went before the Supreme Court who acknowledged Miranda was never informed of his right to council or the right he had not to â€Å"be compelled to incriminate himself.† The Supreme Court ruled since Miranda did not have full knowledge of his rights all statements made by Miranda were inadmissible in court since they were not legally received. Furthermore the Supreme Court justified that since interrogation is intimidating, a suspect must first be given their rights to lessen the intimidation they experience. The Miranda Rights must be read before a suspect is to be questioned or interrogated in any way. The Miranda rights are read as followed: â€Å"You have the right to remain silent and refuse to answer questions. Do you understand? Anything you do say can and will be used against you in a court of law. Do you understand? You have the right to consult an attorney before speaking to the police and to have an attorney present during questioning now or in the future. Do you understand? If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appoint ed for you before any questioning if you wish. Do you understand? If you do decide to answer questions now without an attorney present you will still have the right to stop answering at any time until you talk to an attorney. Do you understand? Knowing and understanding your rights as I have explained them to you, are you willing to answer my questions without an attorney present?† (essortment.com) The 5th Amendment to the US Constitution’s Bill of Rights is â€Å"No person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself or be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law.† The 6th Amendment Right to Counsel Clause coincides with the 5th intricately and was instituted in 1964 from the case of Escobedo vs. Illinois by the Supreme Court’s insistence that police allow council to be present during questioning. â€Å"In all criminal proceedings, the accused shall enjoy the right to have the assistance of counsel for h is defense.† (flexyourrights.org). In historic times, such a notion as the right to silence did not exist. In the 18th century English Criminal procedure made it impossible for a suspect of a crime to protect themselves from self-incrimination. Common law refused a criminal the right to be defended by a lawyer therefore persons suspected of a crime had little choice but to speak for themselves because no one else was going to. Refusal to speak and answer questions was quite the same

Thursday, August 22, 2019

Technological Advances Essay Essay Example for Free

Technological Advances Essay Essay This essay is going to take us back to the beginning with how healers viewed the human body in historical times when little was known about the complexity of the human body. It will touch on several points of how technology in the health care system has been viewed as a blessing to some and a burden to others. This essay will also go into detail on several historical perspectives and what these advances in technology have meant for them as well as how the world views these advances. Technological Advances Essay Before there were formal physicians to care for the sick and debilitated there were healers of all shapes and sizes who looked after and treated those around them that fell ill. The complexity of the human body was not fully understood in early times like it is today. According to Douglas 2003, historically healers came in the form of priests, witch doctors, and even magicians. Depending on the religion and culture one lived in determined the exact treatment they would receive for their illness. Some cultures believed in using the earth to heal any ailments one may possess while other believed the use of a priest was necessary to ward off evil within a person causing their sickness (Douglas, 2003). The advances in medicine even up to this point have shed a great deal of light on how the human body works and have allowed for a more organized way of treating the sick. In today’s modern medical world a person acting â€Å"out of sorts† if you will, may be diagnosed with a mental health disorder like schizophrenia instead of being marked as possessed by evil and needing a priest for treatment. The knowledge that has been gained over the years through research on even one organ such as the brain allows for so much more treatment to be given to an individual suffering from a cerebral issue than was available in early times. The problem with this kind of rapid technological burst in this field lies in that other avenues are being pushed to the back burner. What is meant by that is there is a pill for everything these days based on all the research and knowledge gathered. Alternative medicines that offer a less invasive approach seem to be a road that is blocked off anymore when dealing with physicians. They have spent a great deal of time getting educated on what they know and they are not willing to risk it on something alternative. Medical imagining is a well-known and widely used technological advancement in the field of medicine as well the manufacturing and use of antibiotics. Both of these advancements can be attributed to saving a large number of people’s lives over a significant time span. The different types of medical imaging have made it possible for physicians to take a look inside the human body and see problems without doing unnecessary procedures. In the same way antibiotics have been treating infections and preventing unnecessary deaths. Of course all technology cannot be full proof and the medical society is finding that out with the overuse of antibiotics. Today the uses of these medicines are actually leading to additional diseases such as MRSA for example. MRSA stands for Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus which means it is a strain of staph resistant to many antibiotics out there today. Despite how far America has come in the medical field with new knowledge and advancements in technologies there are still mixed reviews from the public as to if these are good advancement or not. If you were to ask a mother whose child was saved by a heart transplant that was impossible to perform merely fifty years ago I am sure she would be over joyed at how far America has come. However if you were to ask a mother whose child happen to be diagnosed with autism around the time of childhood vaccines she may veer in the opposite direction even though according to the CDC there is no solid proof linking the two together at this point. There will always be people on both sides of the spectrum. It is no surprise that the medical field in America is still a rapidly growing industry. The truth to whether these advancements are beneficial or harmful ultimately lie  somewhere in the middle of the spectrum and it really is individual circumstance at this point that determines how this industry is seen. References Concerns about autism (2013, March 29). In Center for disease control and prevention. Retrieved December 21, 2013 Douglas, H. E. (2003). Historical Overview:Evolution of the allied health professions. In Lecca, P. J., Valentines, P.A., and Lyons, K. J. (Ed). Allied health: practice issues and trends in the new millennium. New York: The Hawthorne Press. First human heart transplant (1996-2013). In History. Retrieved December 22, 2013 Levine, N. (2012, April 18). Understanding MRSA infection. In WebMD. Retrieved December 20, 2013

Wednesday, August 21, 2019

The Mycenaean warfare Essay Example for Free

The Mycenaean warfare Essay The Mycenaeans were a people preoccupied with war How conclusively do the various types of archaeological evidence we have for the Mycenaean warfare and defence support this statement? The Mycenaean age began around 1600 BC and came to end around 1100 BC. Although this period was distinguished by its warlike aspects, I would take issue with the statement that the Mycenaeans were preoccupied by war. The first manifestations of the Mycenaean civilisation were found in the Peleponnese, especially in the north-east and the south-west. By around 1400BC the Mycenaean civilisation had penetrated the greater part of mainland Greece and later still the civilisation seems to have expanded far beyond the main body of Greece. Excavations have revealed Mycenaean remains in southern Italy, Egypt, Sicily, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, Cyprus, and sites in Asia Minor. Evidence of Mycenaean settlements has been beyond a doubt found in Rhodes and in Melos. These settlements may have been a general expansion of the Mycenaean civilisation yet large amounts of Mycenaean imports as found at Cyprus indicate to many archaeologists that these may be trade outposts. General expansion would make war necessary rather than a chosen pursuit as the civilisation would have to take new land whilst defending what they already had. Like all of the civilisations of the time the Mycenaean civilisation was agriculturally based, the Linear B tablets list many farmers crops and also the percentage to be given in tax to the king and the percentage to be given to the shrines of the area. The fact that both the palaces and the shrines received a percentage suggests to me that the civilisation was equally concerned with public life as well as war, which the palaces controlled. Much of the crop would be used in the local area; however, the surplus would be exported through the trading points, where a complicated form of bartering was used as payment. It is hard to understand why in a society that had such an organisational system for the listing and trading of goods, particularly agricultural goods, has no record of an organised army if they were preoccupied with war. Although Linear B tablets record lists of men assigned to military and naval duty it seems there was no permanent specially trained force; it is more likely that every man was expected to carry a weapon and use it when called up for military duty. One theory may be that the Mycenaean civilisation might have had a lack of human resources: since the original inhabitants who it has been argued could have been tribes of people who lived in Greece but were not citizens and were never trusted with military service. There are indeed records of many occupations including cabinet makers, perfume makers and even a physician is mentioned in the tablets suggesting wider career options than simply the military. Infrequently and in small numbers Followers are mentioned on the Knossos tablets who could have been the occupants of the warrior tombs found in the vicinity. They probably were specially trained leaders who would organise the recruited armies in times of war rather than the liaison officers they were first thought to be. One tablet has revealed the sectors delegated to each Follower with the concentration of the Followers being in problem areas such as the Bay of Navarino in the southern area of the west coast and the coastal end of the Kiparissia river valley in the north. This indicates small battalions of recruited soldiers led by an experienced officer in areas most likely to be attacked. Due to the general expansion of Mycenaean civilisation and the volatile times in which there were many small kingdoms around the Mycenaean borders, defence was essential in the civilisations survival. Evidence too, can be found in the defensive capabilities of the Mycenaean citadels, which on the whole were built for the possibility of attack and of sieges. All of the citadels commanded wide views: Mycenae having a view across the Plain of Argos to the sea and even Pylos has an extensive view of the coast. These views gave the citadels early warnings of approaching forces and probably the time in which to move the people who lived around the citadel into safety behind the walls, a similar tactic to the shanty towns in Troy. This cannot be proved, however, as the buildings suggest that the usual occupants of the citadels would be the royal family, priests, craftsmen and occasionally guests. Most of the citadels, excluding Pylos, were heavily fortified and built on acropoleis. The walls at Mycenae are between 5. 5m and 7.5 thick using such huge stones that the walls became known as the Cyclopean walls as peasants marvelled that they must have been built by giants. The walls of Tiryns are even more massive than Mycenae but quite different in style: all the outer walls being immensely thick and with chambers built into the south side. There are few entrances for most sites and the entrances that the sites do have are very well protected. At Mycenae both the Lion gate and the Postern gate have defences on three sides (see figure 1, page four) and in particular on the shield-less side of an approaching soldier making attacking the entrances very difficult. The main entrance to Tiryns was up a long ramp under the eastern wall which exposed the attackers all the way on their unshielded sides, this main entrance led to an opening 4. 5m wide with walls 8m thick, there were two gates beyond the first making the entrance almost impenetrable. In the case of a siege fresh water was available in both Mycenae and Tiryns through underground cisterns suggesting that sieges took place quite often at this time and the Mycenaeans wished to prepare themselves for them. Attacks could be launched from a citadel under siege implied by the sally port in Mycenae from which it would be relatively easy for small bands of men to slip in and out without being noticed. All in all the highly defended citadels suggest the Mycenaeans feared being attacked, making the overall culture at the time seem quite warlike and volatile; the Mycenaeans could simply have been fitting into the trend of the area rather than beginning one. Despite this there can be no doubt that the Mycenaeans were warlike in many respects, they are renowned for their fighting ability many scholars believe that they probably conquered Knossos in Crete and ruled there for sometime. The coming of the Mycenaeans certainly brought a dramatic change to the Cretan society, the warrior tombs around Knossos yielded large amounts of weapons and armour. Documents at Knossos also recorded lists of armour and weapons, one document listed fine linen for a tunic and on the second line mentions tunic fittings (epikhitonia) and 1kg of bronze. It has been argued that the bronze could have been a unit of exchange but it is more likely that the document is refering to a reinforced tunic. The same amount of bronze is used, as tunic fittings could have been a cape or overcoat to protect the soldiers upper arms and the shoulders. An even more detailed, incomplete series of documents describes armour in more detail: body armour, a helmet (korus) with four helmet accessories, two cheek pieces, two shoulder pieces, and an unknown number of further accessories. The helmet accessories could have been metal reinforcing plates over a leather or felt base. The accessories (o-pa-wo-ta) were probably plates of metal that were hung on to a tunic to protect the soldier, yet the arrangement of the plates is debatable with many scholars over the world disagreeing with each other. The crude ideogram from Pylos of a head-dress and corslet offers no clue to the arrangement, with there being too few plates for scale armour. We know that they did have leg and lower arm guards such as the Dendra armour, the leg guards were probably linen as shown in late Mycenaean art, but a few bronze ones have been found possibly to be worn over the linen ones. As John Chadwick states the Mycenaean warrior, however well armed, is incomplete without means of locomotion. It is probably the case that the larger part of the army moved on foot; many, we presume, travelled to the battlefield in chariots such as the one depicted in a fresco at Pylos (see figure 2, page five). Chariots can also be read of in many tablets and seen on numerous vase paintings yet due to their impressionistic style or the damage that time has inflicted it is hard to deduce what they actually looked like. The chariots had four-spoked wheels, a fixed axle and were probably very lightweight built out of wood and wickerwork. A fresco at Hagia Triada in Crete points towards there being hide-covered bodies. Two horses probably pulled them, unlike the chariots depicted in the frescoes, as we know from the remains of horses that they were very small breeds. Whether or not the chariots were used actually used in battle, due to the rough terrain and the implications of the Iliad many scholars believe that the chariots were actually used as taxis to the battlefield. Yet it is hard to believe that only soon after the chariot Battle of Kadesh in 1285 BC that no-one was using chariots in battle, the Mycenaeans neighbours, the Hittite certainly used the chariots in battle. One inventory found in armoury of Knossos lists 340 chariot bodies and 1,000 pairs of wheels, this ratio of 3:1 suggests they were intended for more strenuous duties such as fighting. A fresco in Pylos shows two youths attacking a group of men with short swords or daggers, the distinction seems as difficult to understand wen it comes to the tablets as the ideogram could show either a sword or a dagger. The word pa-ka-na could be the Homeric word phasgana but there is evidence that the word may also be a confusion of the original Mycenaean meaning. One of the main reasons for war and expansion may have been the need to secure the Mycenaeans supply of metal brought to Greece through sea-borne trade. Interruptions in the trade routes could have had a detrimental effect on the Mycenaean civilisation; it has been argued that the Greeks may have attacked Troy due to the equally strong civilisations control on the trade routes. The Mycenaeans chief metal was bronze, as they did not have the technological skill to extract and make good iron. Bronze is an alloy made from copper and tin, with the copper coming from Cyprus, the source of the tin is debatable as it could have come from Spain, what is now Czechoslovakia or even Britain. Chadwick argues that the Mycenaeans may have even had small amounts of tin in the land, this I doubt as such a source would surly been mentioned in the tablets. Where ever the metals came from to make the Bronze it was very valuable and the tablets suggest tightly controlled by the palaces who assigned the metal to specific craftsmen and weighed the goods produced. Although bronze was used for making weapons it also had other uses such as to make vessels and perhaps have been used to make various tools. It has been argued that the Mycenaeans had to expand due to the certain lack of these resources, which were used to make most tools and weaponry. The Mycenaeans imported much of these metals probably in return for large amounts of surplus crops. The Mycenaean civilisation came to an end around 1100BC in a series of disasters and fires, one of the first places to be destroyed was Pylos invaded by an unknown adversary. Writing skills disappeared, only to be rediscovered by the Greek hundreds of years later who adapted the Phoenicians techniques. Foreign trade on a large scale also halted and the population became segregated, splitting into small rural settlements rather than the cities they once inhabited. This decay of a once great society took place over an extended time period starting with the destruction of a few cities in 1250BC and has been blamed on Dorian invasions, climate changes or internal struggles. There is no evidence that proves any of these arguments but it is obvious that the volatile times in which the Mycenaeans lived in finally destroyed the civilisation. My main argument against the opinion that the Mycenaeans were preoccupied with war is that they did bring structure into the areas in which they inhabited. Although they were obviously a warlike culture they had strong systems when it came to trade, religion, craft and administration proved most finally by the fact these structures collapsed when the Mycenaean civilisation ended. Bibliography The Mycenaeans by Lord William Taylour The Mycenaean civilisation by John Chadwick http. //www. lfc. edu/academics/greece/BrzMyc. html http://www. portergaud. edu/cmcarver/myce. html.